Facing the modern world of sports is an important mental challenge for athletes. Emotional stability is very important and necessary for athletes. For a successful sports life, sportspersons must focus on clear-cut, specific, and planned goals. They come across opportunities to assess themselves and their opponents in sports competitions. The absence of these opportunities in athletes’ lives increases their psychological problems, deprives them of self-confidence, and affects their professional commitment and personal health [1,2]. In general, athletes require psychosocial and emotional stability and strengthening them in competitive experiences, such as management of successes, flexibility, and acceptance of failures [3]. These people are exposed to various stressful factors, psychological strain, and psychological disorders such as poor performance, perfectionism, competition for choice, adverse life events, and general (non-sports) factors [4]. As a general stressful factor in athletes, unexpected coexistence with the unknown COVID-19 has posed physical, psychological, and economic consequences. In addition, it has caused highly traumatic situations that can lead to a risky future for them [5]. The WHO's recommendations resulted in the cancellation and postponement of many sporting events for social distancing. Most countries adopted quarantine measures to prevent the outbreak and recurrence of this disease [6]. These efforts disrupted people's daily lives, prevented sportspersons from training in an appropriate environment, and led to negative impacts at cognitive, behavioral, and emotional levels. The sports world was severely affected during the COVID-19 pandemic when sportspersons could not train and participate in competitions [7]. Recent studies conducted on the effects of quarantine measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have shed light on the numerous adverse consequences experienced by athletes [8,9]. Indeed, according to some studies, mental health challenges are experienced by sportspersons just like the general population, which is why they are not safe [9–11]. Moreover, a literature review shows that exercise creates a protective impact, thus preventing mental disorders. For instance, a study comparing general health in female sportspersons and non-sportspersons [12] revealed that sportspersons are different from non-sportspersons in severe depression and anxiety and have more resilience. Şenışık et al. also found that sportspersons exhibited superior mental well-being compared to individuals who do not engage in sports activities amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering the belief that sports prevent mental disorders, there seems to be no agreement about the presence of mental problems among sportspersons [13]. Nevertheless, present studies comparing mental health between elite sportspersons and the general population have shown that athletes’ mental problems are often undetected as they hide these problems from their coaches and teammates owing to mental toughness. Besides, sportspersons suffering from these problems may not inform their teammates or coach so that they may not lose their position and be deprived of competing with their opponents [9,11]. In general, it can be stated that although quarantine and other confinements derived from the COVID-19 pandemic are new historical phenomena, such problems are similar to sports injuries that sportspersons face at different stages. These injuries have consequences and challenges for them, including suspension or restriction of sports activities, loss of independence, change in the sports environment, suspension or limitation of unrelated sports activities, loss of opportunity to enhance individual and collective sports records, and individual and social changes (e.g., early retirement due to alterations in the tournament schedule). In addition, it may cause larger problems like drug abuse, depression, social isolation, anxiety, suicide, low self-esteem, and sleep disorder [14–17]. In this respect, a literature review shows extensive research on the effect of COVID-19 on the mental problems of athletes. For example, a comprehensive analysis of prior research has determined that the implementation of quarantine measures can have detrimental psychological consequences, such as the development of post-traumatic stress symptoms, heightened levels of anger, confusion, and an increased propensity for violent behavior [18]. Another study also showed that quarantine directly correlates with drug use [19]. In their recent study, Bertrand et al. [20] examined the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the exercise routines, dietary patterns, and physical fitness of Masters cyclists. The findings indicated that there was an increase in sedentary behavior during the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. No statistically significant disparities were observed in the duration of training, physical fitness, or dietary habits over a period of three months. In a recent study conducted by Mon-López et al. [21], it was discovered that the period of isolation due to the COVID-19 pandemic had a detrimental effect on individuals' exercise habits, resulting in a decrease in both the volume and intensity of physical activity. Additionally, the study revealed that the isolation period also had a negative impact on sleep quality. Graupensperger et al. [22] examined the impact of athletic identity, teammate interactions, and mental health among student-sportspersons in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study revealed that student sportspersons who had strong social connections and support from their teammates during this challenging period were more likely to preserve their athletic individuality and experience improved mental well-being. These findings underscore the significance of social communication with peers and the role of identity in navigating the unique circumstances brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. Pillay et al. [10] reported that COVID-19 had nutritional, physical, and psychological results and a negative impact on athletes’ safety and general health. A literature review also shows that a sudden interruption in the training program made most sportspersons set new goals during the coming seasons. For sportspersons at the end of their competitive period, this interruption means an early and sudden closure in their field, which increases hostile feelings during quarantine [23]. Sportspersons may not have trained for a long time due to quarantine, which may make them worried that it will harm their athletic performance and skills [24]. In addition, since the training conditions were not the same as normal conditions, some sportspersons trained at home alone with no supervision [25]. Several individuals underwent training in camps located away from their residences, where they were subjected to enforced isolation, excessive leisure time, and a lack of clear objectives [26]. Other sportspersons were probably exposed to levels of non-training and inappropriate training stimuli [27]. However, different people may exhibit different psychological reactions to this situation. Some may be able to have effective coping mechanisms, while others may exhibit a more pessimistic reaction to it. Uroh and Adewunmi [27] found that the athletes’ age does not predict psychological distress and the duration of participation (years) in sports. Nevertheless, the category of sports participation and athletic identity could predict the psychological distress level to a definite extent. Sportspersons participating in separate sports experienced more psychological distress than in team sports. This result is confirmed by other studies, reporting that the nature of individual sports makes the sportspersons of such sports more susceptible to mental distress compared to team sports sportspersons [28,29]. Furthermore, individuals who possess a stronger sense of athletic identity tend to exhibit lower levels of psychological distress compared to those with a weaker athletic identity [27]. The results of other studies also indicated that non-professional and professional sportspersons have the same signs of psychological distress [4]. In addition, there are certain risk indicators that are applicable to both the general population and athletes, such as negative life events, which can result in similar levels of psychological distress [8,29].

In general, the cancellation of sports competitions worldwide, the closure of sports venues and spaces, the lack of special facilities for training, the lack of accompaniment of teammates and guidance from coaches, the decrease in desire, and the increase in stressful conditions had negative effects on athletes’ level of training. Consequently, these factors lead to many qualitative damages for sportspersons and the world of sports [30]. This condition can destroy athletes’ daily lives and physical and mental. Therefore, it is imperative to thoroughly examine and diagnose any potential psychological issues in order to mitigate the decline of their mental well-being. Therefore, the mental health and well-being of elite sportspersons should be comprehended. In this regard, the increased interest and greater need to understand the mental and psychological complexities of sportspersons have resulted in the validation and experimental development of specific questionnaires for athletes. These instruments are appropriate for assessing the manifestations of mental health in the surrounding context and facilitating the timely identification of mental health conditions. Therefore, preventing and intervening in the mental disorders of sportspersons seem essential in these conditions. However, there are limited reliable and valid screening tools to recognize the early indicators of athletes’ mental problems and potential signs of their mental health. An example of a specific questionnaire for sportspersons is theAPSQ. According to Rice et al. [31,32], APSQ is a reliable screening tool for predicting athletes’ psychological strain. Based on the mentioned points, the literature and evidence show that the outbreak of COVID-19 can affect athletes’ activity levels and training, change their lifestyle, and alter their psychological characteristics [31].

Accordingly, The objective of this study was to examine the psychological stress and training intensity experienced by athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as to validate the Persian version of the APSQ among Iranian athletes. It was hypothesized that sportspersons who continue to exercise in COVID-19 conditions would display lower levels of athlete psychological strain with higher training load similarly associated with lower athlete psychological strain. In addition, sportspersons who were more concerned about progress and burnout were expected to report higher levels of athlete psychological strain (to ensure that different sports at the individual and team levels are equally divided into two groups, the sample was homogenized in the two groups and 61 samples were placed in each group).

Participants included 317 sportspersons who completed questionnaires, of whom 144 (45.4 %) were female. The average age of the sample was 27.48 with a standard deviation of 8.27 years (see Table 1).

Confirmatory factor analysis

Data revealed a satisfactory fit to the 3-factor model (Figure 1): χ2 (32) = 74.08, TLI = 0.924, CFI = 0.946, RMSEA = 0.065, 90 % CI (0.045 and 0.084), PCFI = 0.673, CMIN/DF=2.31, and SRMR = 0.057.

Fig. 1.

The hierarchical structure ASPQ, Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with standardized coefficients.

(0.22MB).

The objective of this study was to investigate how different training conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic impact the mental well-being of athletes. Additionally, the researchers aimed to validate the APSQ (Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire) in Iranian athletes. Results revealed that athletes, owing to non-continuing training during the COVID-19 pandemic, underwent greater psychological stress than those who had training during this period. Also, sportspersons with longer training periods were less concerned about their progress and athletic burnout and experienced less psychological strain amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.

The more frequently athletes trained each week and the longer they trained each day, the lower their psychological strain was. In other words, an increase in their training during the day and week reduced their psychological strain level during the COVID-19 pandemic. There is consistency between these findings and those of studies by Loprinzi [34], Hamer et al. [45], and Campbell and Turner [46]. The authors demonstrated that engaging in regular physical activity is linked to a reduced likelihood of developing mental disorders, while also enhancing safety and preserving moral stability . These results align with the research conducted by Mon-López et al. [21,47], which suggests that the COVID-19 quarantine period impacts both training intensity and the recovery process. Besides, in line with our study, other studies have shown that those who do not have regular training with high volume and repetition exhibit fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety [48]. There is ample evidence indicating that individuals who were unable to maintain their regular exercise regimen during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced heightened psychological stress. Moreover, those spending more time doing moderate-to-vigorous training showed fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety [48]. Overall, reviewing the literature shows that performing physical activities and staying committed to sports can help reduce anxiety and psychological strain [49]. The reason behind this outcome is the calming effects of physical activity and exercise on both biological and psychological processes associated with physical activities. Regular exercise is a decent treatment for health and reduction of psychological strain. This may lead to a direct decrease in negative emotions, impact the maintenance of the immune system, and promote overall improvement in mental well-being. Engaging in sufficient physical activity can lower levels of stress hormones and potentially enhance unfavorable conditions and mental and physical disturbances [50]. Endorphin, secreted because of physical activity to improve mood, serves as a natural pain reliever and decreases the stress hormones level such as cortisol and adrenaline. Moreover, physiological adaptation can be caused by participation in regular physical activity, thereby reducing behaviors that lead to stopping exercise and stress and anxiety. As previous studies have shown, exercise and physical activity can increase neurotransmitters, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins, making them very effective in positive psychological and mood changes. On the other hand, the beneficial The psychological and social factors related to engaging in physical activity for psychological disorders, like anxiety, are also significant and include the experience of feeling self-efficacy and freedom from daily stress factors. Based on this finding, physically active people present fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety than inactive people [44,51]. Furthermore, as an important protector against stressful events, exercise has a key role and decreases psycho-emotional strain. Therefore, physically active sportspersons exhibit fewer symptoms of anxiety, depression, and psychological strain than inactive sportspersons [52]. As a result, it can be said that active sportspersons experienced less psychological strain during the COVID-19 pandemic, which helped them face hardships and times of crisis more successfully. Exercise helps people feel strong in facing problems. Individuals with higher self-efficacy and commitment to sports do not feel despair, anxiety, and failure in difficult situations; they actually face problems believing they can successfully tackles the problems in life [53].

The study findings indicate that athlete-specific distress can be categorized into moderate, high, and very high levels, which are represented by scores equal to or greater than 15, 17, and 20, respectively [43]. The findings of this research showed that sportspersons who did not do any sports activities during the quarantine showed impaired physical fitness and body composition. They also showed greater psychological strain. The findings of the study align with previous studies conducted by Calzada-Rodríguez et al. and Qi et al. [53,54]. Qi et al. found that the inactive lifestyle of sportspersons during the COVID-19 pandemic increased the risk of getting a wide range of mental illnesses and disturbed their psyche [55].

Factors such as limited social interaction, increased economic uncertainty, inadequate evaluation of training conditions, and the cancellation of sports events can contribute to stress, anxiety, and exhaustion for athletes [56,57]. Research has shown that athletic burnout can influence athletes’ mental health and sports performance. According to our study findings, Bai et al. demonstrated that being exposed to psychological stress during the COVID-19 pandemic raised the likelihood of experiencing athletic burnout [58]. Karakose et al. discovered a significant correlation between psychological distress caused by COVID-19 and job burnout associated with it. The authors demonstrated that the level of psychological distress among individuals contributed to an increase in job burnout [59]. Many studies have reported a correlation between basic psychological needs, anxiety, stress, and athletic burnout. In this regard, a moderate to robust negative relationship existed between anxiety and basic psychological needs [59]. Individuals may also experience stress and burnout owing to insufficient responses to basic psychological requirements [60,61]. Many studies recommend doing exercises like high-intensity interval training (HIIT), which facilitates metabolism, and yoga or nerve-calming exercises, which help calm the mood and improve sleep quality amidst the COVID-19 pandemic [62,63]. Physical activity amidst the COVID-19 outbreak seems to minimize negative emotions. In addition, the number of training days recommended during this period is slightly higher than that recommended prior to the COVID-19 outbreak. In this connection, 60 min of daily moderate physical activity is suggested to keep physical and mental health. Therefore, it appears that individuals require supplementary physical activity in order to manage the psychological stress and negative emotions that arise from the outbreak of a disease and the implementation of social distancing measures [64]. Participating in sports, being active, and biological mechanisms (e.g., neurogenesis, reduced inflammation, increased antioxidant activity, increased anti-anxiety hormones), and other individual factors (e.g., athletes’ increased self-esteem, self-efficacy level, athletic identity, commitment, training duration, and type of sports activity (team or individual sports) can be directly related to their mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic [64]. Besides, it should be noted that the APSQ is applicable and valid for the daily life of athletes in any time condition. Physical activity is a source of health and can potentially control psychological disorders and increase the quality of life and mental well-being.

Another finding of this study is the psychometric validation of the APSQ. The APSQ was shown to have good construct validity, and the relevant model was accepted using CFA. The concurrent validity results indicated a considerable positive association between APSQ and psychological distress and a notable inverse association between psychological well-being and APSQ. Therefore, the simultaneous convergent and divergent validity of this questionnaire was confirmed. The results also revealed acceptable reliability of the questionnaires using criteria including Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and split-half coefficient. As for the discriminant validity and the cut-off point, the results indicated that the cut-off point was confirmed based on the findings of the main questionnaire in the Iranian sample. Besides, the questionnaire had good discriminant validity with specificity and sensitivity levels of 100 %. Generally, our results indicated the psychometric validation of this questionnaire in the Iranian athlete population. Accordingly, researchers can use this scale for early detection of athletes’ psychological strain and the psychological consequences of COVID-19 in them. The findings of present study are in align with the outcomes reported by Rice et al. [65]. Thus, the early discovery of psychological strain by this instrument may assist in improving athletes’ mental health. In particular, the APSQ seems to help coaches and sports psychologists identify the high and low psychological strain and monitor sportspersons over time.

One of the constraints of this study was the relatively small sample size and the limited number of participants. Furthermore, athletes may exhibit hesitancy in divulging their mental health symptoms in order to avoid the negative connotations and prejudices often associated with mental health disorders. Therefore, the data should be generalized with caution. Besides, gender differences were not compared due to the limited representation of male and female athletes, as well as the variation in psychological stress experienced in different individual and team sports.. Hence, additional research with larger sample sizes is necessary in order to establish more robust generalizations based on the findings.

The fast outbreak of the coronavirus created concerns for physical and mental health throughout the world. Therefore, people encountered several mental health problems, with athletes being no exception. The results confirmed the psychometric validation of the APSQ. Therefore, researchers can use this scale for early detection of athletes’ psychological strain and the psychological consequences of COVID-19 in them. Early detection of mental health problems by this tool may help improve athletes’ mental health. The present research aimed at examining how different training conditions impact the mental well-being of athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic. It was hypothesized that sportspersons who continue to exercise in COVID-19 conditions would display lower levels of athlete psychological strain with higher training load similarly associated with lower athlete psychological strain. Findings also revealed that sportspersons involved in sports activity and training during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced less psychological strain than those who avoided training. The higher the training load, the lower the psychological strain. Besides, sportspersons who were worried about their progress experienced more psychological strain. In general, quarantine and isolation can increase athletes’ psychological strain. Thus, maintaining physical activity and regular exercise in a safe environment, either at home or in a safe camp, is a significant approach to maintaining athletes’ mental well-being. Considering the complex psychological consequences of the quarantine period and the changing environment in the modern world, it seems that countries’ sports centers and officials should create special safe centers to train athletes. Also, they should hire sports psychologists to provide online interventions, helping sportspersons reset their goals and adapt to conditions like quarantine.

All authors approved this manuscript for publication with a substantial, intellectual, and direct contribution.